PHL 250         Review Guide for Exam #1     Summer 2004    Dr Stephens

James Rachels, The Elements of Moral Philosophy (4th edition)

Chapter 1.
a.) How does Socrates define morality? (p.1)
b.) What must moral judgments be backed by? (p.11 ff.) Why?
c.) Why is impartiality necessary for moral judgments? (p.13–14)
d.) How does Rachels characterize "the minimum conception of morality"? (p.14–15)

Chapter 2.
a.) What is Cultural Relativism? (p.18–19)
b.) Reconstruct the Cultural Differences Argument (p.19–20)
c.) Explain why the Cultural Differences Argument is not sound (p.20–21).
d.) Explain three consequences of taking Cultural Relativism seriously (p.21–23).
e.) What values do all cultures have in common? (p.25–26)
f.) What two lessons can be learned from Cultural Relativism? (p.29–31)

Chapter 3.
a.) Explain what Rachels calls Simple (Ethical) Subjectivism (p.34–35).
b.) What are the two most prominent objections to Simple Subjectivism? (p.35–36)
c.) Explain Charles L. Stevenson’s theory of Emotivism (p.36–37).
d.) How does Emotivism avoid the two objections to Simple Subjectivism? (p.38–39)
e.) Explain Rachels’ criticisms of Emotivism (p.39–44).
f.) What explanations does Rachels offer for the fact that people persist in believing that moral judgments are "unprovable" and so ultimately neither true nor false? (p.43–44).
g.) Explain the arguments for and against the view that homosexuality is immoral (p.44–47).

Chapter 4.
a.) Explain Divine Command Theory (p.50)
b.) What are the two strengths of this theory Rachels describes? (p.50)
c.) What are the serious problems with this theory? (p.50–52)
d.) Explain the problem Socrates raises with Divine Command theory (p.51–53).
e.) Explain the Theory of Natural Law (p.53–56).
f.) Which Catholic theologian-philosopher is most associated with it? (p.53)
g.) From which Greek philosopher does 4f derive the Theory of Natural Law? (p.53)
h.) What is David Hume’s criticism of this theory? (p.56)
i.) What is the second criticism of this theory which Rachels describes? (p.56–57)
j.) How does the third part of the Theory of Natural Law allow believers and non-believers to "inhabit the same moral universe"? (p.57)
k.) What was St. Thomas Aquinas’ position on abortion? (p.61)

Chapter 5.
a.) Explain the theory of Psychological Egoism (p.63–64)
b.) Which philosopher "thought that Psychological Egoism was probably true"? (p.65).
c.) How did 5b use the strategy of reinterpreting motives to explain charity and pity? (p.65–67)
d.) Reconstruct two different general arguments for Psychological Egoism (p.67–70)
e.) What are the criticisms of these arguments that Rachels describes? (p.70–72)
f.) What are the three types of motivation Rachels distinguishes?  Give examples of each type of behavior (p.71).
g.) What does Rachels say is the deepest error in Psychological Egoism? (p.72–75)

Chapter 6.
a.) Explain Ethical Egoism; how does it differ from Psychological Egoism? (p.77–78).
b.) Reconstruct Robert G. Olson’s argument for Ethical Egoism (p.79–80). What is the trouble with this argument?
c.) Reconstruct Ayn Rand’s argument for Ethical Egoism (p.80–81). What is the problem with this argument?
d.) Reconstruct the "Commonsense Morality" argument for Ethical Egoism (p.82–84).  What are two serious problems Rachels sees in this argument?
e.) Explain Kurt Baier’s argument that Ethical Egoism cannot handle conflicts of interest (p.85–86).
f.) Explain the argument that Ethical Egoism is logically inconsistent (p.87–88).
g.) Explain Rachels’ nearly "outright refutation" of Ethical Egoism.   When does he think we can justify treating people differently?  How does this idea shed light on racism, anti-Semitism, sexism, nationalism, and religious intolerance? (p.88–90).
h.) State the principle of formal justice and explain its meaning.

Chapter 7
a.) Who first proposed the theory of Utilitarianism and when did he live?
b.) Who was Jeremy Bentham and when did he live?  State precisely Bentham’s Classical Principle of Utility (p.92).
c.) Who was John Stuart Mill and when did he live?  State precisely J. S. Mill’s Greatest Happiness Principle (p.92).
d.) Explain the primary rule of morality, according to Mill (p.93).
e.) Explain what these principles mean.
f.) Describe how these principles would be applied to the Mathew Donnelly euthanasia case (p.93–96).
g.) Explain Bentham and Mill’s view regarding the purpose of law and the freedom of citizens (p.96).
h.) Compare and contrast the Christian tradition following St. Thomas Aquinas with the utilitarian tradition following Bentham on the treatment of nonhuman animals (p.97–99).
i.) Who is Peter Singer?  Explain Singer’s arguments regarding animal experimentation and the system of meat production.  What does Rachels think is most revolutionary about Singer’s utilitarian ideas? (p.99–101)

Chapter 8
a.) Explain the three "propositions" of Classical Utilitarianism. (p.102)
b.) How impartial about people’s happiness does J. S. Mill say a Utilitarian must be? (p.102)
c.) Explain the idea behind Bentham’s quotation: "Pushpin is as good as poetry."
d.) How does J. S. Mill distinguish "higher" from "lower" pleasures? (repeats a. above)
e.) Explain the difference between Hedonism and Eudaimonism.  Which philosophers advocated which?
f.) Describe the two examples Rachels says reveal the flaws of "Hedonism."
g.) What are the three types of intrinsic goods according to G. E. Moore? (p.104)
h.) What kind of Utilitarianism does Peter Singer advocate?
i.) Describe Singer’s  argument on animal experimentation.
j.) Describe Singer’s argument about the cruelty of factory farming.
k.) Explain in detail (and give examples illustrating) the FIVE different criticisms of Utilitarianism.
l.) Explain the three "lines of defense" a Utilitarian could make in response to these criticisms.  Explain the difference between ACT Utilitarianism and RULE Utilitarianism.  Show how they can reach opposing moral evaluations of various actions.  What did J.J.C. Smart say about "the common moral consciousness"? (p.114)